QA: Forest Society and colonalism

 

Q1. How was the ship industry of England responsible for deforestation in India?

Ans. The ship industry of England was responsible for deforestation in India as:

1.     The oak forests in England were disappearing due to high demand which created a problem of timber supply for the Royal Navy to build ships.

2.     To get a regular supply of oak for the ship industry, search parties were sent by the British to explore the Indian forests on a massive scale. Trees were cut down on a massive scale and vast quantities of timber was exported from India.

 

Q2. How far was the plantation agriculture responsible for deforestation in India?  

Ans.  Plantation agriculture was responsible for deforestation in India as:

1.     Large areas of forests were cleared to make way for tea, coffee and rubber plantations to meet Europe’s growing need for these commodities.

2.     Colonial government took over forests and gave vast areas to European planters at cheap rates.

3.     These areas were enclosed and forests were cleared and planted with tea and coffee.

 

Q3. Who was appointed as the first Inspector General of Forests in India. Explain any three

       reforms introduced by him.

Ans. Dietrich Brandis, a German expert, was appointed as the First Inspector General of Forests in

         India by the British Government to save the forests.

The following were the main reforms introduced by Dietrich Brandis:

1.     In 1864, Dietrich Brandis set up the Indian Forest Service and helped to formulate the Indian Forest Act of 1865.

2.     He introduced ‘scientific forestry’where in place of natural forests, one type of trees were planted in straight rows.

According to the Forest Act of 1878, there were three categories of forests- reserved, protected and village forests. Villagers were not allowed to take anything from the forest.

3.  According to the plan, forest officials surveyed and planned that every year how much of the  

     plantation will be cut and replanted so that the trees remain always ready to be cut, in some  

     years.In 1906 , the Imperial Forest Research Institute was set up in Dehradun.

 

Q4. Why was Dietrich Brandis invited by the British government? What steps were taken by 

        him to protect forests?

Ans. The Britishers feared that the reckless felling and cutting of trees by the traders detroyed the  

         forests. So they invited Dietrich Brandis for advice and made him the first Inspector General of

         Forests in India.

The steps taken by Brandis to protect the forests were:

1.     Proper system was adopted to manage the forests and people were asked to conserve .

2.     Rules about the use of forest resources were framed.

3.     Felling of trees and grazing of land was restricted, so that the forests could be used for timber

production.

4.     Anyone who did not follow the system was punished. Brandis set up the Indian Forest Service

   in 1864. 

 

 

Q5. What is meant by scientific forestry? Why was it introduced in India by the British?

Ans. a) Scientific forestry is a system of managing forests and tree plantations.

1.     Under it, the natural forests which had lots of different types of trees were cut down. In their place, one type of tree was planted in straight rows called a plantation.

2.     Forest officials surveyed the forests, estimated the area under different types of trees and made working plans for forest management. They planned how much of the plantation area was to be cut every year. The forest area was cut down to be replanted so that it was ready to be deforested again.

b) Scientific forestry was introduced in India by the British as:

1.  They needed forests in order to build ships and railways.

2.  They were worried that the use of forests by local people and the reckless felling of trees by traders would destroy forests. They thought that felling of trees and grazing had to be restricted so that forests could be preserved for timber production.

3.  For which they felt that people had to be trained in the science of conservation.

 

Q6. How were the lives of the Indian villagers affected by scientific forestry? Explain.

Ans. 1. The lives of the Indian villagers were affected as they wanted forests with a mixture of species to satisfy their different needs for fuel, fodder, and leaves. On the other hand, the forest department wanted trees which were suitable for building ships or railways. So, particular species like teak and sal were promoted and others were cut down.

2. After the Act, all their everyday practices – cutting wood for their houses, grazing their cattle,   

    collecting fruits and roots, hunting and fishing became illegal.

3. People were now forced to steal wood from the forest if they were caught. They were at the mercy of the forest guards who would take bribes from them. Even women who collected fuelwood were worried.

4. It was also common for police constables and forest guards to harass people by demanding free food from them.

 

Q7.  What is shifting agriculture? Why was it regarded as harmful by the European foresters?

 Ans. Shifting agriculture or Swidden agriculture is a traditional agricultural practice in many parts of

          Asia, Africa and Central and South America where it is known by many local names.

1.     In shifting cultivation, parts of a forest are cut and burnt in rotation, seeds are sown in ashes after the first monsoon rains and the crop is harvested by October-November.

2.     Such plots are cultivated for a couple of years and then left fallow for 12 to 18 years for the forest to grow back.

3.     European foresters regarded this practice as harmful for the forests. They felt that land which was used for cultivation every few years could not grow trees for railway timber. When the forest was burnt, there was added danger of the flames spreading and burning valuable timber.

 

Q8. Differentiate between the customary practice of hunting and hunting as a sport in India,

       after the Forest Acts were passed.

 Ans. The customary practice of hunting and hunting as a sport differed after the Forest Act was

           passed.

1.     Before the forest laws were passed, people who depended on forests hunted birds and small animals for food.

2.     After the laws were passed, hunting of big game became a sport. Under colonial rule the scale of hunting increased so much that many species became extinct.

3.     Rewards were given for killing tigers, wolves, etc., on the pretext that they were a threat to human life. Certain areas of the forests were reserved for hunting.

 

Q9. What is meant by ‘scorched earth policy’? Describe the effects of World Wars on forests

        with reference to the scorched earth policy?

Ans. A scorched earth policy is a military strategy involving the destruction of crops, water resources  

         or any other resources to prevent the enemy from using them. 

        The effects of World Wars on forests with reference to the ‘scorched earth policy’ are as follows:

1.     The First World War and Second World War had a major impact on forests.

2.     In India, the forest department cut trees freely to meet British war needs.

3.     In Java, the Dutch followed the scorched earth policy just before the Japanese occupied the region. The Dutch destroyed the sawmills and burned huge piles of giant teak logs so that they would not fall into Japanese hands.

4.     The Japanese exploited the forests recklessly for their own war industries, forcing forest villagers

to cut down forests.

5.     Many villagers used this opportunity to expand cultivation in the forest.

6.     After the war, it was difficult for the Indonesian Forest Service to get this land back.

 

Q10. Explain the impact of new trends and developments on forestry of today.

                                                    OR

What new trends and developments have occurred in forestry in Asia and Africa in recent times?

Ans. The impact of new trends and developments have affected the forestry of today.

1.     Since the 1980’s, the governments across Asia and Africa have begun to see that the scientific forestry and the policy of keeping the forest communities away from forest have resulted in many conflicts.

2.     Conservation of forests rather than collecting timber has become an important goal. In order to meet this goal, the government realized that more involvement of people living near the forests is a must.  

3.     In fact, across India, states from Mizoram to Kerala, dense forests have survived due to the efforts made by the villagers in protecting them in sacred groves known as kan, rai, sarnas.

4.     Even patrolling is done by the villages to protect their own forests, with each household taking in turns, instead of leaving it to the forest guards.

5.     Local forest communities and environmentalists today are thinking of different forms of forest management.

 

  Q11. How did the British bring change in the trade of forest products? What were the effects of these changes?

Ans.  From the medieval period onwards, records of adivasi communities trading in forest products such as hides, horns, silk cocoons, ivory, bamboo, spices, fibres, bones, gum, resins, etc. through nomadic communities have been found.

         a) However, with the coming of the British the forest trade was completely regulated by the   

              government. The British gave the European trading firms the sole right to trade in forest products  

              of particular areas.

 

b) The British policy had adverse effects on the forest people. Grazing and hunting by local people were restricted. In the process, many pastoralists and nomadic communities like Korava, Karacha etc. lost their livelihoods. Some of these tribes were branded as criminal tribes and were forced to work instead, in factories, mines or plantations under government supervision.

 

Q12. Who were Saminists?Describe the way of protesting which was adopted by the Saminists.  

Ans.   The Saminists were natives of the village Randublatung who began questioning state 

            ownership of the forests and other natural resources.

        The Saminists argued that the state had not created the wind, water, earth and wood, so it could not own them. Soon a widespread movement developed against the Government’s order of paying taxes which were imposed even for the collection of firewood. They adopted non-violent movement. Some of them protested by lying down on their land when the Dutch came to survey it, while others refused to pay taxes or fines or perform labour.

 

  Q13.Between 1880 and 1920, forest cover in the Indian subcontinent declined by 9.7 million  

           hectares, from 108.6 million hectares to 98.9 million hectares.

        Discuss the role of the following factors in this decline.

(a) Railways and shipbuilding                (b) Commercial farming          (c) Agricultural expansion  

(d) Tea/ Coffee Plantation                (e) Adivasis and other peasant users.

Ans. The role of the following factors in this decline can be discussed in the following ways:

   1. Railways:

a)    The spread of railways from 1850s created a new demand. Railways were essential for successful colonial control, administration, trade and movement of troops.

b)    To lay railway lines as sleepers were essential to hold tracks together hence, forests around the railway tracks started disappearing fast.

 

2. Shipbuilding:

a)  UK had the largest colonial empire in the world. Shortage of oak forests created a great timber  

     problem for the shipbuilding industry of England. For the Royal Navy, large wooden boats, ships,

     courtyards for shipping etc., trees from Indian forests were being felled on massive scale from

     the 1820s or 1830s to export large quantities of timber from India.

 

3. Commercial Farming:

a)    Large areas of natural forest were also cleared to make space for the plantations or commercial farming. Jute, rubber, indigo, tobacco etc. were the commercial crops that were planted to meet Britain’s growing need of the commodities. The British colonial government took over the forests and gave a vast area to the European planters on cheap rent.

 

4. Agricultural Expansion:                                                   

a)    Agricultural expansion was responsible for decreasing the share of land under forests with the rise of population.

b)    Growing urban population and increased raw material requirement of British industries extended the boundaries of cultivation, clearing forests and breaking new lands.

c)     The Britishers considered forests as unproductive.

 

5. Tea/ Coffee Plantation:

a)    Large areas of natural forests which had lots of different types of trees were cleared to make way for tea, coffee, and rubber plantations to meet Europe’s growing need for the commodities.

b)    The Britishers took over forests and gave vast areas to European planters on cheap rates.

 

6. Adivasis and other peasant users:

a)    The over dependence of Adivasis and other peasant on forests produce like bamboo, gum, resin and ivory for trade through Banjaras also contributed to loss of forest cover.

 

 

 

 

   Q14. What are the similarities between colonial management of forests in Bastar and in Java?    

Ans. The colonial management of forests were similar in the following ways:

1.     The colonial government imposed new forest laws according to which two-thirds of the forests were reserved.

2.     Cultivation, hunting and collection of forest produce was banned. Most people in forest villages were displaced without notice or compensation.

3.     In the same way, when the Dutch gained control over the forests in Java, they enacted forest laws, restricting villagers' access to forests.

4.     Now wood could only be cut for specific purposes and from specific forests under close supervision.

5.     Villagers were punished for grazing cattle, transporting wood without a permit or travelling on forest road with horse-carts or cattle.

 

Q15. Why were the forests affected by wars?

Ans. The forests were affected by wars because of the following reasons:

1.     In India, working plans were abandoned at this time, and the forest department cut trees freely to meet British war needs.

2.     To meet war needs forests were cut indiscriminately.

3.     Fearing the capture of forest area by the enemy, sometimes the government themselves cut down forests, destroyed sawmills and burnt huge piles of logs. Such a policy was followed by the Dutch.

4.     After World War II, Java fell in the hands of Japanese and the forests were exploited for their needs.

5.     The forests during war times became a no man’s land and were subjected to abundant plunder and destruction.

 

Q16. Discuss how the changes in forest management in the colonial period affected the following groups of people:

a) Shifting cultivators                                     b) Nomadic and pastoralist communities

c) Firms trading in timber/ forest produce   d) Plantation owners   

e) Kings/ British officials engaged in Shikar.

Ans. The forest management in the colonial period affected the groups of people in the following ways:

 

a) Shifting Cultivators:

1.     Loss of livelihood: When shifting cultivation was banned, it resulted in displacement of many communities from their homes in the forests.

2.     New occupations:  Many people were forced to take up trading or become labourers.

3.     Large and small rebellions: When government banned shifting cultivation, people revolted against the decision of the government.

 

b) Nomadic and Pastoralist communities:

1.     Reduction in Grazing lands: The movement of these groups were severely restricted as the forests were classified into different categories.

2.     Taxes: Pastoralist had to pay taxes on every animal they grazed on pastures.

3.     Livelihood: Communities such as Korava, Karacha and Yerukula of Madras Presidency lost their means of livelihood and had to work in factories.

4.     Poor quality of pasture: Due to overgrazing of lands the quality of pastures declined and resulted in shortage of fodder.

 

c) Firms trading in timber and forest produce:

1.     The new forest policies introduced imposed restrictions on local firms.

2.     The reckless cutting of trees by the Britishers led to deforestation and ecological imbalance.

3.     Adivasi communities were displaced, reduced to starvation, or forced to work as labourers.

 

d) Plantation owners:

1.     Changes in forests management favoured the plantation owners.

2.     A free hand was given to them to destroy natural forests to make way for tea, coffee and rubber plantations.

3.     Plantation owners contributed largely to deforestation in India.

 

 

e) Kings/ British officials engaged in Shikar:

1.     Though the forest law deprived the forest-dwellers of the right to hunt, the kings and British officials continued the big game.

2.     Hunting of wild animals was seen as a sport by the Indian rulers and a form of civilizing mission of the British officials.

3.     Big animals were seen as a threat to the plantations.

4.     The scale of hunting increased to such an extent that various species became almost extinct.

5.     Later environmentalist and conservators realized that many species needed to be protected and not killed.